Literary Geographies – Virtual Theme Issue

If Geography is sometimes said to be about placing things in context, how does it engage with the question of text? While there have been many debates about the texts of theory, here the emphasis is on literary texts—plays, poems, and novels. Literary theory has proved useful for geographical debates, with deconstruction, new historicism, cultural studies, feminism, Marxism and structuralism proving influential at different times. A classic example from this journal is James Duncan and Nancy Duncan’s discussion of the uses of literary theory to read landscapes (1988). Rather here we want to look at how  geographers – whether within the discipline Geography or without – have read works of literature.

An early issue of this journal published a kind of theoretical manifesto by John Silk (1984) for going beyond existing approaches to Geography and Literature: a piece regularly referenced in subsequent discussions of this topic (see also Pocock 1988). It is made available again here. Silk co-wrote a later book looking at portrayals of African-Americans in American popular culture, both film and fiction (1990). A list of books or book chapters on geography and literature would be vast, but geographical perspectives have also been offered in multiple journals in the field. They range from classic established literary authors and texts such as Shakespeare (Mayhew 1998; Chamberlain 2001; Elden forthcoming); Orwell’s 1984 (Tyner 2004); Rushdie’s The Satanic Verses (Sharp 1996); Beowulf (Elden 2009); Conrad’s Heart of Darkness (Barnett 1996); and Kerouac’s On the Road (Cresswell 1993), to the more recent, genre-specific, challenging or unusual (Buckley 1996; Gilbert 1996; Doel 2001; Kitchin and Kneale eds. 2002; Closs-Stephens 2011; Kneale 2006, 2011; Brown 2006; Romanillos 2008; Dittmer 2010). There have been some previous collections in journals on this theme – GeoJournal (1996) and the Cahiers de géographie du Québec (2008). Recently Sheila Hones and James Kneale have created the Literary Geographies blog – which with its extensive bibliographies has quickly become the authoritative reference point for work in this area.

Especially given the resources of that site, this is the not the place for a comprehensive overview (see Hones 2008, Lando 1996) Rather we want to highlight four areas in which papers published in Society and Space have developed some interesting perspectives on the interrelations of geography and literature.

The first are papers that use literary texts to examine questions of postcolonialism. From a rich collection of papers (see also Schech and Haggis 1998; Sugg 2003, for example), two have been chosen. Clive Barnett’s discussion of South African writer J.M. Coetzee (1997), which uses his work to analyse the postcolonial theorizations of Spivak and Parry; and Pat Noxolo, Parvati Raghurum and Clare Madge’s readings of postcolonial texts through the metaphors of pregnancy and lactation (2008). The authors discussed in the latter piece are Zee Edgell and Toni Morrison, but the purpose is wider: to reflect on Geography as a global discipline and its colonial/postcolonial tensions.

That paper could equally have served as an exemplar of the next area, feminist readings of texts. Two further examples are offered here – Mandy Morris’s discussion of Frances Hodgson Burnett’s children’s novel The Secret Garden (1996) and Juliet Fall’s critique of the embodied geographies and uncritical geopolitics of the comic books La Frontière Invisible (2006).

The third of the areas is poetry. Two papers are chosen here. The first is Jason Groves on the poet Paul Celan (2011). This paper was originally published as part of a theme issue on Aerographies edited by Mark Jackson and Maria Fannin (2011; see also the open site companion piece here) which includes other pieces that discuss literary texts. The second is John Tomaney’s reading of the Irish poet and novelist Patrick Kavanagh (2010; see also 2007).

The fourth area, though most of the papers already noted would also fit here, is what might be called a kind of politicised literary geography, where literary texts are used to shed light on the complex interrelations between politics and space in ways other sources may not allow. Two papers are selected here: Nuala Johnson’s reading of Eoin McNamee’s novel Resurrection Man for its insights into 1970s Belfast (1998), and Joe Galbo’s discussion of the Italian Fascist Gabriele D’Annuzio (1996).

Finally, the journal has recently brought together a number of people reflecting on the importance of fiction to their own writing as geographers, whether or not they would describe their work as literary geographies (Thomas et. al. 2011). That piece rounds of this selection.

These ten papers, ranging from the 1980s to the present decade showcase just some of the papers in this journal that have contributed to discussions of literary geographies. As well as being of considerable interest in their own right, we hope they inspire future explorations in this area.

Papers in this Virtual Theme Issue - open access until end of November 2012

Barnett Clive 1997 “‘Sing Along with the Common People’: Politics, Postcolonialism, and Other Figures”, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 15(2) 137 – 154

Fall, Juliet J, 2006, “Embodied Geographies, Naturalised Boundaries, and Uncritical Geopolitics in La Frontière Invisible” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 24(5) 653 – 669

Galbo Joe 1996, “Sex, geography, and death: metropolis and empire in a Fascist writer” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 14(1) 35 – 58

Groves Jason 2011, “‘The stone in the air’: Paul Celan’s Other Terrain” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 29(3) 469 – 484

Johnson Nuala C, 1999, “The cartographies of violence: Belfast’s Resurrection Man” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 17(6) 723 – 736

Morris, Mandy S, 1996 “‘Tha’lt be like a blush-rose when tha’ grows up, my little lass’: English Cultural and Gendered Identity in The Secret Garden”, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 14(1) 59 – 78.

Noxolo, Pat, Raghuram Parvati, and Madge Clare 2008 “‘Geography is Pregnant’ and ‘Geography’s Milk is Flowing’: Metaphors for a Postcolonial Discipline?”, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 26(1) 146 – 168.

Silk, John 1984 “Beyond Geography and Literature” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 2 (2): 151 – 178.

Thomas, Mary et. al. 2011, “Fictional Worlds” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 29(3) 551 – 567

Tomaney John 2010, “Parish and Universe: Patrick Kavanagh’s Poetics of the Local” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 28(2) 311 – 325

Other References (may require subscription)

Barnett, Clive 1996. “‘A Choice of Nightmares’: narration and desire in Heart of Darkness”. Gender, Place and Culture 3 (3): 277–292.

Bédard, Mario and Lahaie, Christiane 2008. Cahiers de géographie du Québec 52 (147).

Brown, Michael 2006 “A Geographer Reads Geography Club: Spatial Metaphor and Metonym in Textual/Sexual Space”, Cultural Geographies 13: 313–339.

Buckley, Sandra 1996. “A Guided Tour of the Kitchen: Seven Japanese Domestic Tales.” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 14 (4): 441 – 461.

Caviedes, César N. ed. 1996. Special issue of GeoJournal 38(1).

Chamberlain Paul G, 2001, “The Shakespearian Globe: Geometry, Optics, Spectacle” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 19(3) 317 – 333.

Closs Stephens A, 2011, “Beyond Imaginative Geographies? Critique, Co-optation, and Imagination in the Aftermath of the War on Terror”, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 29(2) 254 – 267

Cresswell, Tim 1993 “Mobility as Resistance: A Geographical Reading of Kerouac’s On the Road”, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers NS 18(2): 249–262. There was a discussion of the paper in a subsequent issue Vol 21 No 2.

Dittmer, Jason 2010 “Comic Book Visualities: A Methodological Manifesto, Montage and Narration”, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 35 (2): 222-36.

Doel Marcus A, 2001 “1a. Qualified Quantitative Geography” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 19(5) 555 – 572

Duncan, James and Duncan, Nancy 1988 “(Re)reading the landscape” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 6(2) 117 – 126.

Elden, Stuart 2009 “Place Symbolism and Land Politics in Beowulf”, Cultural Geographies.16(4) 447-463.

Elden, Stuart 2013 “The Geopolitics of King Lear: Territory, Land, Earth”, Law and Literature 25 (forthcoming).

Gilbert, Emily 1996 “Situating the City: Representations of the Toronto in Three Women’s Novels”, The London Journal of Canadian Studies 12: 95-122. [open access]

Hones, Sheila 2008 “Text as it Happens: Literary Geographies”, Geography Compass 2(5) 1301-17.

Jackson, Mark and Fannin, Maria eds. (2011) “Aerographies”, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 29 (3) 435-550.

Kitchin, Rob and Kneale, James eds. (2002) Lost in Space: Geographies of Science Fiction, London: Continuum.

Kneale, James 2006. “From Beyond: H. P. Lovecraft and the Place of Horror”, Cultural Geographies 13(1) 106–126.

Kneale, J. 2011. “Plots: space, conspiracy, and contingency in William Gibson’s Pattern Recognition and Spook Country.” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 29(1) 169–186.

Lando, Fabio (1996) “Fact and Fiction: Geography and Literature”, GeoJournal 38(1) 3-18.

Mayhew, Robert J. (1998) “Was William Shakespeare an Eighteenth-Century Geographer? Constructing Histories of Geographical Knowledge”, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, NS 23(1) 21-37,

Pocock, Douglas 1988 “Geography and Literature”, Progress in Human Geography 12(1) 87-102.

Romanillos José Luis, 2008, “‘Outside, it is Snowing’: Experience and Finitude in the Nonrepresentational Landscapes of Alain Robbe-Grillet” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 26(5) 795 – 822

Schech, Susanne and Haggis, Jane 1998 “Postcolonialism, Identity, and Location: Being White Australian in Asia?” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 16(5) 615 – 629.

Silk, John and Silk, Catherine, 1990. Racism and Anti-Racism in American Popular Culture: Portrayals of African-Americans in Fiction and Film, Manchester: Manchester University Press.

Sharp, Joanne (1996) “Locating Imaginary Homelands: Literature, Geography, and Salman Rushdie”, GeoJournal 38(1) 119-27.

Sugg K, 2003, “Migratory sexualities, diasporic histories, and memory in queer Cuban-American cultural production” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 21(4) 461 – 477

Tomaney J, 2007, “Keeping a Beat in the Dark: Narratives of Regional Identity in Basil Bunting’s Briggflatts”, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 25(2) 355 – 375.

Tyner, James A. 2004. “Self and Space, Resistance and Discipline: A Foucauldian Reading of George Orwell’s 1984”, Social and Cultural Geography 5(1) 129-49.

Olympics 2012 – Megaevents virtual issue

This very topical virtual theme draws papers from the Environment and Planning series of journals, including Society and Space. It begins with a newly written editorial by Francisco Klauser. The papers are open access.

Editorial: Sport megaevents and the city
Francisco R Klauser

The impact of the World Student Games on Sheffield
P Foley

The professionalisation of urban cultural policies in France: the case of festivals
E Négrier

Civic boosterism in the politics of local economic development — ‘institutional positions’ and ‘strategic orientations’ in the consumption of hallmark events
M Boyle

The World Cup and the national Thing on Commercial Drive, Vancouver
Paul Kingsbury

Vancouver’s promise of the world’s first sustainable Olympic Games
Meg Holden, Julia MacKenzie, Robert VanWynsberghe

Splintering spheres of security: Peter Sloterdijk and the contemporary fortress city
Francisco R Klauser

Development plans versus conservation: explanation of emergent conflicts and state political handling
Evangelia Apostolopoulou, John D Pantis

International urban festivals as a catalyst for governance capacity building
Paul Benneworth, Hugh Dauncey

State dirigisme in megaprojects: governing the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi
Martin Müller

Commentaries
Pre-Olympic and post-Olympic Barcelona, a ‘model’ for urban regeneration today?
Maria-Dolors Garcia-Ramon, Abel Albet

Queer Space – virtual theme issue

Queer space

Queer theorizing has made a lot of room for time lately as several recent major works have spurred on a temporal turn within the field (eg. Edelman 2004, Freeman 2010, Halberstam 2005, Munoz 2009 and Puar 2007). This diverse literature hangs together in its common concern to reinvigorate the queer political and intellectual project in the face of the unprecedented mainstreaming of gay and lesbian life that is occurring in a number of contexts. Arguing that the normalization of gayness demands not celebration but scrutiny, work on queer time diagnoses emergent homonormativities and attendant queer liberalisms. It seeks to move us away from the increasingly narrow single-issue focus of too much queer scholarship and activism to resituate queerness as a radical social critique. It envisions a renewed criticism that attends to the simultaneously sexualized, raced, gendered, classed and nationalized ways in which hegemonic structures continue to render certain subjects ‘normal’ through the production of ‘perverse’ others.

In consonance with these powerful and important claims, this virtual theme issue assembles queer theoretical work from the Society and Space archives to explicitly spread the spotlight from time to space (of course the queer time literature does not ignore space, but its treatment is limited). None of the pieces here engage in any depth with the queer time literature; indeed, most of them predate queer theory’s temporal turn. Yet they evidence the vitality that a spatial analytic brings to the sort of radical critique that queer time scholarship advances. The earliest pieces highlighted here were among the first to put geography into conversation with queer theory. They put the lives of ‘sexual dissidents’ on the map and took mainstream geographical thought to task as disembodied. This challenge to the ‘straightness’ of the discipline has persisted in the queer work within our pages, even as that work has moved out from the single-issue to situate sexuality within a wide social field. Also persistent has been an insistence that the best queer theorizing is geographically sensitive. Across a diverse range of topics, these papers demonstrate the need to understand sexuality as sited and scaled. They take space, place, distance, proximity, movement and flow seriously as constitutive elements of sexual lives, norms, and politics.

‘Queer space’, these papers show, is a productive notion. That is not to say that these authors essentially define or claim literal sites for some sort of essential queerness. Just as the ‘queer time’ literature deploys that term epistemologically rather than asserting it ontologically, so is ‘queer space’ used in these pages. It is thus offered as a notion to think with as we imagine radical queer futures.

These papers will be available open access through August 2012. Readers may also wish to check out the already open access editorial introductions to two relevant special issues on the themes ‘Sexuality and space: queering geographies of globalization’ (2003) and ‘Governing intimacy’ (2010). We look forward to receiving more provocative submissions on many queer spaces and times.

Sexuality and the spatial dynamics of capitalism
Larry Knopp
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 1992 10 651 – 669

Ironies of distance: an ongoing critique of the geographies of AIDS
Michael Brown
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 1995 13 159 – 183

Genderbashing: sexuality, gender, and the regulation of public space
Ki Namaste
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 1996 14 221 – 240

Coming out of Geography: towards a queer epistemology?
Jon Binnie
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 1997 15 223 – 237

Retrenchment from a queer ideal: class privilege and the failure of identity politics in AIDS activism
G Derrick Hodge
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 2000 18 355 – 376

Breeders on a golf ball: normalizing sex at Ellis Island
Erica Rand
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 2003 21 441-460

Pleasure and propriety: teen girls and the practice of straight space
Mary E Thomas
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 2004 22 773 – 789

You could truly be yourself if you just weren’t you: sexuality, disabled body space, and the (neo)liberal politics of self-help
Matthew Sothern
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 2007 25 144 – 159

The queer intimacy of global vision: documentary practice and the AIDS pandemic
Meredith Raimondo
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 2010 28 112-127

Bestiality and the queering of the human animal
Michael Brown and Claire Rasmussen
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 2010 28 158-177

Queer ecology: nature, sexuality and urban heterotopias
Matthew Gandy
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space advance online publication

Thanks to Mary Thomas, Deb Cowen and Stuart Elden for their help in shaping the content of this virtual theme issue and for logistical support. Thanks also to Jan Schubert and Rory Clarke at Pion for facilitating open access to the articles.

References

Edelman L, 2004 No future: Queer theory and the death drive (Duke University Press, Durham, NC)

Freeman E, 2010 Time binds: Queer temporalities, queer histories (Duke University Press, Durham, NC)

Halberstam J, 2005 In a queer time and place: Transgender bodies, subcultural lives (New York University Press, New York)

Munoz J, 2009 Cruising utopia: the then and there of queer futurity (New York University Press, New York)

Puar J, 2007 Terrorist assemblages: Homonationalism in queer times (Duke University Press, Durham, NC)

Boys Town Redux – Antipode supplement

Our colleagues at Antipode have put together a supplement to the ‘Boys Town Redux’ virtual theme issue Mary Thomas assembled for this site. A good number of papers - Rosalyn Deutsche, David Harvey, Gerry Pratt, Doreen Massey, Gillian Rose, Linda McDowell, Iris Marion Young, Cindi Katz and many others - from both journals are now open access for a limited time. The Society and Space papers will be available until 7 May 2012; the Antipode ones until 23 June 2012.

Boys Town Redux – virtual theme issue

Boys Town Redux

“Today, totalizing impulses are routinely manifested in indifference to feminism – to feminism’s difference from other social analyses, its internal differences, and its theories of difference” (Deutsche 1991, page 7).

Twenty years ago, Rosalyn Deutsche eviscerated David Harvey’s The Condition of Postmodernity by depriving it of its authoritative account of aesthetic and cultural practices and representations.  Harvey, she argued, sought to explain urban space, the built environment, and the production of meaning through a political economic “metatheory” (Deutsche 1991, page 18).  To be clear, Deutsche’s critique was not centered on discarding or de-emphasizing Marxist analysis; rather, she faulted Harvey’s work for relying on what she called “the total vantage point” afforded by an epistemology that assumes power can “harmonize conflicts and differentiate social elements hierarchically” (page 19).   His totalizing discourse “depends on feminism’s absence” (page 8).

Deutsche’s present seems eerily like ours.  Feminism’s absence is keenly felt in some of the contemporary theoretical debates in social theories of spatial politics.  More to the point, however, is that, even while feminist scholars are much more widely cited, the challenges that feminist critique bring to the doing and articulating of knowledge itself is largely bygone.  Masculinist positions proliferate, from authoritative performances of Continental philosophy, to everyday life in the geography department, and to the representations of expertise at professional conferences and its platforms.  Does geography remain a “boys town”?  Has the discipline reverted to its tendencies toward phallocentric language and masculinist position, indeed did it ever relinquish them?

This virtual theme issue is meant to enliven the rich and critical quality of feminism’s presence in geographic epistemology and to indicate our desire as editors to welcome feminist critique in the journal.  We urge readers to recall, as Deutsche also suggested, feminism’s differences, as the papers included in this theme issue criticize not only a phallocentric economy of meaning, but also the Western philosophy that centralizes, and then universalizes, its masculine subject (Rose 1995, page 762).  Thus, “feminist critique” cannot be reduced to the task of examining “gender.”   Indeed the feminist critique found in these articles often question how Westernized gender, sexuality, and race become assumed categories that lock epistemology at a distance from analyses of the domains of knowledge production, foundational categorization, disciplinary values and exclusion, and embodiment.

Yet, perhaps over time, the feminist content in Society and Space largely shifted from critique of geography’s phallocentrism to analyses of gender and social difference.  The question to ask – and to offer as a starting point for discussion here on the Open Site – is what might be obfuscated in this shift, if anything.  If feminist critique is merely evidenced by citations of feminist scholars, or with the study of gender or “women,” what challenges are left to offer to the politics of knowledge itself?

The following papers will be available through open access, with no need for a subscription, until April, 2012.  They illustrate the ongoing imperative to consider the interconnections between spatial exclusion, social justice, and the practices of knowledge and geography.  The last two decades’ content illustrates a range of perspectives on the located specificities of gender, sexuality, class, and race-ethnicity, and robust interdisciplinary approaches to feminist, critical race, postcolonial, and queer theories.  Does it also reflect an ardent and productive evisceration of “geography”?  This content may illustrate that feminist geography has become largely a project of evidencing the very categories we need to continuously, simultaneously, critique.

Boys town
Rosalyn Deutsche
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 1991 9 5 – 30

Flexible sexism
Doreen Massey
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 1991 9 31 – 57

Other figures in other places: on feminism, postmodernism and geography
Liz Bondi and Mona Domosh
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 1992 10 199 – 213

(Re)mapping Mother Earth: a geographical perspective on environmental feminisms
Cathy Nesmith and Sarah Radcliffe
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 1993 11 379 – 394

‘Race’ and sexuality: challenging the patriarchal structuring of urban social space
Linda Peake
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 1993 11 415 – 432

Distance, surface, elsewhere: a feminist critique of the space of phallocentric self/knowledge
Gillian Rose
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 1995 13 761 – 781

Towards minor theory
Cindi Katz
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 1996 14 487 – 499

Taking Butler elsewhere: performativities, spatialities and subjectivities
Nicky Gregson and Gillian Rose
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 2000 18 433 – 452

Research performances
Geraldine Pratt
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 2000 18 639 – 651

The nature of gender: work, gender, and environment
Andrea Nightingale
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 2006 24 165 – 185

Justice and the geographies of moral protest: reflections from Mexico
Melissa Wright
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 2009 27 216 – 233

“War is not healthy for children and other living things”
Jenna Loyd
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 27 2009 403 – 424

Thanks are due to Deb Cowen, Natalie Oswin, and Stuart Elden for their help in getting this virtual issue together, and to Pion, especially Jatinder Padda, for making these articles freely available.

Urban Disorder and Policing – virtual theme issue

Urban Disorder and Policing

Recent events in London and elsewhere have brought a renewed focus on urban disorder, revolt and policing. To date, commentary from across the political spectrum has tended to be polarising, offering straight-forward condemnations or seeking to explain things in ways that have been all-too-easy to paint as exculpations. The condemnations have become increasingly unpleasant, mobilizing a whole range of animal, medical or racial language to describe the individuals and groups involved. Suggested responses have often shown a disturbing faith in the efficacy of state violence. Society, we are told, is broken. From the other side, there have been attempts to suggest recent government policies have directly caused or contributed to the events. Complex social phenomena are rarely mono-causal, and the events have proved almost impossible to anticipate, which itself should caution against any attempt at easy explanations. Profound social inequalities, insensitive, violent and racist policing, disconnection and despair have undoubtedly contributed to the  situation, but the way that communities have been set against each other demonstrates other forces are at play. Yet at the same time, a call for the restoration of law and order, or a stress on the inviolability of property rights is, itself, a political position, and the attempt to rule explanation out of court a defence of the status quo.

We have grouped the following seven previously published papers – six from Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, and one from Environment and Planning A – into a virtual theme issue. The papers will be freely available without subscription for two months until October 2011. We think that these papers, which offer a range of historical, political, theoretical and geographical perspectives, provide a wealth of valuable and considered insights. While these pieces will not provide all the answers, our hope is that they will contribute to a better informed debate.

Street life: the politics of Carnival
Peter Jackson
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 1988 6 213 – 227

Space, time, and policing: towards a contextual understanding of police work
Nick R Fyfe
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space  1992 10 469 – 481

Reclaiming the street: the discourse of curfew
Hugh Matthews, Melanie Limb, Mark Taylor
Environment and Planning A 1999 31 1713 – 1730

Badlands of the Republic? Revolts, the French state, and the question of banlieues
Mustafa Dikeç
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 2006 24 159 – 163

Space and protest policing at international summits
Mike Zajko, Daniel Béland
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 2008 26 719 – 735

Riotous Sydney: Redfern, Macquarie Fields, and (my) Cronulla
Wendy S Shaw
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 2009 27 425 – 443

Producing spaces for representation: racist marches, counterdemonstrations, and public-order policing
Mattias Wahlström
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 2010 28 811 – 827

Acknowledgments

I am grateful to the journal’s co-editors for their enthusiasm for this idea, comments on the framing remarks and a suggestion of an additional paper to include; to Amye Kenall and her colleagues at Pion for making the papers open-access; and to Ben Anderson for a discussion and the phrase ‘faith in the efficacy of state violence’.